The 20th century has seen much progress and advancement in many areas. One such area is the advancement of women in the workforce. Unlike the days of our fathers and grandfathers, women are now well educated and are no longer solely confined to the role of a homemaker. Women are now driven with ambition and many strive for that position at the top. However, with hardly any exception, the global picture depicts men outnumbering women at about five to one at middle management level and at about twenty or more to one at senior management level. Hence, it is often claimed—with some justification—that women are disadvantaged by male chauvinism or by ageism or have their career advancement stopped short by a glass ceiling. Some of these can be removed or modified and some need to be faced and accepted. It is worth considering what factors create glass ceilings and what can be done about them.

Factors that create glass ceilings

1. Women who choose to combine academic careers with family life have a hard struggle that is both physically and emotionally draining. Even with an understanding partner, good childcare arrangements and family-friendly organisations, there is still a continuous conflict between the demands at the office and the family role. The inevitable result is that women in their thirties with this kind of lifestyle tend to have curricula vitae that look thinner than those of their male counterparts. At a period of life when men are often producing their best work and building an impressive list of publications women may not have the time or mental energy to match them.

2. With the need to globalise, many women lose out in the job market because they do not have the required mobility. It is often only practicable for one partner to be mobile and in many cases the man follows the job and the woman follows the man. As a result, too many women end up in dead-end, temporary or part-time appointments and find it daunting to secure full-time permanent posts.

3. In some cases, it is also possible that a glass ceiling may be to some extent self-imposed. Women may be content to cling on to the career ladder rather than pushing hard enough to move up it. In a competitive environment, career advancement takes ambition, drive and 'edge'. Women may be too willing to take on the kind of chores that keep the wheels turning but bring little recognition and no glory.

Overcoming the glass ceilings
Organisational understanding is most important. With an ever-increasing demand in family-friendly practices, more can and should be done for working mothers. For example, more temporary posts should be made permanent when good performance has been demonstrated. Job-sharing arrangements can be set up. Organisations can also provide crèche facilities and promote a culture of equal opportunities.

However, if you are not fortunate enough to work for an understanding organisation, then, you'll do well to heed the advice of a friend working in a top Accounting company. She said, “Instead of trying to break the glass ceiling, women need to find their own personal windows to climb through it”. Here are some tips of how women can negotiate their way around the barriers and get ahead.

Network
Firstly, women need to concentrate more on building meaningful strategic alliances inside and especially outside their companies. Serving on volunteer boards is excellent training ground for a corporate directorship and a great way to connect with potentially valuable business peers who can offer a window into what other companies are doing. Secondly, managers who inspire and communicate well with staff are the ones who get promoted. It is important to instill in others the desire to help you succeed but in order to achieve this, you need to help others be successful. Thirdly, it is imperative to have a team of effective employees in place if you are looking towards getting a promotion. Make sure that your team can thrive without you, because if you are unable to leave your job, you won't.

Stay connected
Some people have bought into the idea that “only results matter”. However, results are but one part of a total package that also includes knowing how to communicate effectively at the highest level. It is imperative that you stay connected. Never shut yourself out of meetings, because then you will be unaware of any change of ideas or company directions. Always know what the lines of communication available are and use them to your advantage.

Develop a thick skin
Women managers must have thick skins and know something about winning at office politics. You can't pick your company and say, “I'm only going to play with the nice guys.” You have to be able to say, “I'm going to play hardball.” Taking risks is an essential part of moving up, just as experiencing profit and loss are routine. Risk-averse people generally do not get to the executive ranks. Learning to fail gracefully is a skill every aspiring senior manager should acquire, along with knowing how to bounce back from a fall.

The juggling act
Women returning to work after a break can be helped by opportunities to re-train and to update their skills and knowledge. Employment boards would do well to recognize that older women are capable of making strong contributions to the organisation. These are their most productive years. They have acquired stamina and learned skills of time management that will hold them in good stead.

And once you've made it to the executive suite, how do you strike a balance? What are the sacrifices that are necessary? Balancing a top corporate job with personal and family life remains one of the toughest challenges. For some women, the demands of work have prompted them to postpone having children, while others lament the lack of personal time for exercise or hobbies. What's the bottom line? There are no magic formulas for achieving balance. It all boils down to setting your priorities. You have to be able to know for yourself what the things are that count for you. If you have not learnt to say 'no' to what is unimportant to you, you will never be able to find your balance.

Conclusion
Assessing why glass ceilings are imposed on women is difficult. But one possible motive for the reluctance to promote women to positions of managerial responsibility is the fear they will drop out to have children, disrupting the corporate hierarchy. This is consistent with evidence that women advance more successfully in professional jobs that demand marketable individual skills rather than in managerial jobs with direct control over staff and resources.